The Role of Chemistry in History

Introduction, Chemistry, How It Works, Physiological Effects, Health Risk, Crack Epidemic, Crack on Black Crime, Crack Killed the 80s and 90s, History, Crack in America, References

• Natives of the Andes Mountains
  • used plants containing cocaine’s active ingredient for medicinal and recreational purposes for more than 15 Centuries. Incas chewed leaves from the erythroxylon plant to stimulate their productivity and mood.

• Albert Niemann
• First to process cocaine hydrochloride in 1859

• William Halstead First Physician to use cocaine as an anesthetic

• Coca-Cola contained cocaine until 1903 when it was replaced with caffeine.

• In 1910 President William Taft declared that cocaine was a national threat.
• Crack cocaine was first developed during the cocaine boom of the 1970’s and became extremely popular during the 1980’s.
• Mid 1980’s began the start of the “Crack Epidemic”.

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Introduction, Chemistry, How It Works, Physiological Effects, Health Risk, Crack Epidemic, Crack on Black Crime, Crack Killed the 80s and 90s, History, Crack in America, References

Crack produces:

• feelings of well-being
• mental exhilaration
• reduced appetite
• great physical strength in the short term

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Introduction, Chemistry, How It Works, Physiological Effects, Health Risk, Crack Epidemic, Crack on Black Crime, Crack Killed the 80s and 90s, History, Crack in America, References

Crack cocaine is a derivative of powered cocaine, made by dissolving cocaine powder in water, adding baking soda, and boiling the mixture until a solid base separates from the solution. This process does not change the chemical composition of the active cocaine alkaloid, but it does change the manner by which it may be ingested.

Chemical Composition: C₁₇H₂₁NO₄

Formal Chemical Name: (IUPAC):

(1R,5S)-methyl 8-methyl-3-(phenylcarbonyloxy)-8-azabicyclo[3.2.1]octane-2-carboxylate

Molecular Mass: 303. 353

A crack molecule is comprised of 17 carbon atoms, 21 hydrogen atoms, 1 atom of nitrogen, and 4 oxygen atoms. There are six double bonds within each molecule, and the rest of the bonds are single.

Chemical Structure:

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Introduction, Chemistry, How It Works, Physiological Effects, Health Risk, Crack Epidemic, Crack on Black Crime, Crack Killed the 80s and 90s, History, Crack in America, References

What is Crack?

• Highly addictive and powerful stimulant derived from powdered cocaine
• Emerged as a drug of abuse in the mid-1980s.
• Produces an immediate high
• Inexpensive

• Produced by dissolving powdered cocaine water and ammonia or sodium bicarbonate (baking soda).
• The mixture is boiled until a solid substance forms.
• The solid is removed from the liquid, dried, and then broken into the chunks (rocks) that are sold as crack cocaine.

Also Known as

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Introduction, Chemistry, How It Works, Physiological Effects, Health Risk, Crack Epidemic, Crack on Black Crime, Crack Killed the 80s and 90s, History, Crack in America, References

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Introduction to Estradiol, Definition and Structure, Estradiol’s Effect on History: Medicinal Purposes, Estradiol’s Effect on History: Therapeutic Purposes, History’s Effect on Estradiol

Diethylstibestrol (DES) is a synthetic estrogen developed in the 1930’s for women who experienced problems while pregnant. It was given to women who experienced miscarriages or premature deliveries. After nearly 30 years of administering the drug, the FDA realized that it was linked to a rare form of vaginal cancer in the female offspring of the people who took DES.

There are many risks associated with DES including breast cancer, structural differences in the reproductive tracts of the offspring, infertility, clear cell cancer, and pregnancy complications.

A study at Yale University discovered that interaction with DES changes a gene necessary for uterine development. Exposure with DES leads to imprinting in the genetic memory and changing the structure of genes, meaning that offspring of people who used DES would suffer the effects of the drug.

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Introduction to Estradiol, Definition and Structure, Estradiol’s Effect on History: Medicinal Purposes, Estradiol’s Effect on History: Therapeutic Purposes, History’s Effect on Estradiol

• Hormone replacement therapy
  • If a woman has low estrogen levels during or after menopause, she will be given a set of drugs to boost hormone levels
    • These drugs will be given in a variety of ways: patches, creams, gels, or tablets
    • Dosage varies depending on the case but estrogens are typically taken every day
  • Transgendered males will take estrogens to help grow breasts, change hair growth, and redistribute body fat
    • Estradiol can be given orally, nasally, sublingually, transdermally, or implanted
    • Doses are normally very high for the first few years but then may decrease with time
• Blocking estrogens
  • Every once in a while estrogens will be blocked when causing unwanted circumstances such as breast cancer or gynecomastia, a condition in which males grow large breasts
  • The aromatase enzyme converts testosterone into estradiol so by inhibiting this action, estrogen levels can be decreased

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 Introduction Chemical Composition  History affects Chocolate: Spread and Innovation Chocolate Affects History: Economics  Chocolate Affects History: Health Benefits Chocolate Affects History: Pop Culture

There are many claimed health benefits of chocolate that are currently being researched. Chocolate is said to benefit the circulatory system. It has also been suggested that chocolate has anti-cancer properties, acts as a brain stimulator, aids concentration, lowers blood pressure, prevents coughs and acts as an aphrodisiac.

 However, the fat in chocolate has also been linked to the nation’s obesity trends. Lead poisoning is also a concern if a person ingests high levels of chocolate. 

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Introduction to Estradiol, Definition and Structure, Estradiol’s Effect on History: Medicinal Purposes, Estradiol’s Effect on History: Therapeutic Purposes, History’s Effect on Estradiol

• Used for hypoestrogenism
  • A condition in which a woman has low levels of estrogen
  • It can be attributed to scoliosis, excessive exercise, or not eating well
  • Can be given a variety of drugs but estradiol will typically be administered transdermally in this situation, in the form of a patch
• Estradiol is altered to ethinylestradiol which is the main ingredient in oral contraceptive pills
  • Estrogens help control a woman’s cycle
  • They also prevent ovulation by stopping the follicular development
• Helps with symptoms of menopause
  • During menopause the ovaries stop working which means they stop producing estrogen hormones
  • Reduces hot flashes and decreases vaginal dryness
  • Doctors will sometimes recommend hormone therapy
• Used also for osteoporosis
  • A condition in which the bones become less dense and strong which leads to increase risk of fracture
  • Common in elders, especially postmenopausal women
  • When estrogen or testosterone levels drop there is a decrease in the bone mineral density
  • Estradiol is administered to help keep bones strong and prevent fractures
• Reduces the risk of heart attacks and strokes
• It can also even be used to treat acne or hair loss
• Administered orally, transdermally, topically, and vaginally

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Introduction  The History Tempera Paints vs. Oil Paints Drying Oils The Extraction of Linseed Oil Linolenic Acid So What? Oil Painting and History Bibliography

Clearly, the shift from tempera paints to oil paints has had a large impact on the history of art.  It has not only had an impact, however, on art history.  Rather, this movement is a part of a much broader and more general movement in history, the Renaissance.  The acceptance and widespread use of oil paints is crucial in this period because it embodies the changes which were occurring at this time.  It is difficult to look at the Renaissance without looking at the drastic changes which were occurring in the field of art.  The Renaissance encompassed a move towards realism; the use of oil paints was one of the tools used by artists during this period to represent their subjects more realistically than was possible with tempera paints.

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