The Role of Chemistry in History

Introduction – Discovery – How is it Made?

Uses 1 – Uses 2 – Uses 3

Hydrogen Peroxide and History – Hydrogen Peroxide and the Future

Around 2 million tons of hydrogen peroxide are made each year. About half of that is used to bleach wood pulp or paper. It is seen as an environmentally friendly alternative to chlorine-based bleaches. In domestic uses, it is used as a mixture with NaOH to bleach wooden surfaces. It is also used to bleach textiles.

Medically, hydrogen peroxide is used to disinfect skin, as it can kill bacteria by using its oxidizing power. When it comes into contact with a cut, it fizzes as oxygen is released, probably due to the action of catalase in the blood. Dilute H₂O₂ solution (around 3%) is used as a mouthwash, and also for cleaning and disinfecting contact lenses.

It also bleaches teeth and is a key ingredient in making glow sticks!

Controversially, it has been suggested that use of hydrogen peroxide solution – for example in very low concentrations intravenously – can be used as a therapy for cancer (“oxygen therapy”). The American Cancer Society says that there is nothing to support this, and that it may well be harmful.

Fun Fact: Hydrogen peroxide, if spilled on clothing (or other flammable materials), will preferentially evaporate water until the concentration reaches sufficient strength, then clothing will spontaneously ignite.

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Introduction – Discovery – How is it Made?

Uses 1  – Uses 2 – Uses 3 

Hydrogen Peroxide and History – Hydrogen Peroxide and the Future

Hydrogen Peroxide was first dicovered by Louis- Jacques Thenard in 1818 by burning barium salts to create barium peroxides. When the Barium peroxides were put into water to dissolve, Thenard found that hydrogen peroxide was produced.

Hydrogen Peroxide is a is a strong oxidizing agent and a weak acid in water solution. The formula is similar to that of water, with an extra atom of oxygen attached, H2O2. It is completely soluble in water. Pure anhydrous hydrogen peroxide is a colorless to pale blue  syrupy liquid which decomposes violently into water and oxygen if heated above 80 C. it also decomposes in light and in the presence of metal ions or oxidizable organic materials.  One volume of hydrogen peroxide releases ten volumes of oxygen when it decomposes. The most valuable property of hydrogen peroxide is that it breaks down into water and oxygen and therefore does not form any persistent, toxic residual compounds.

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Introduction – Discovery – How is it Made?

Uses 1 – Uses 2 – Uses 3

Hydrogen Peroxide and History – Hydrogen Peroxide and the Future

HYDROGEN PEROXIDE

H2O2

Household Disinfectant, Rocket Fuel, and Bleached Blondes in One Bottle…

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Introduction to AZT | The Chemistry of AZT| Side Effects| Pregnancy| An Anything But American Virus| Opposing Views| How AZT Changed History|

• In the U.S., about 25 percent of pregnant HIV-infected women not receiving AZT therapy passed on the infection to their babies. AZT reduced that 25 percent to 8 percent

• The treatment cost per pregnant woman is still $1,000

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Introduction to AZT | The Chemistry of AZT| Side Effects| Pregnancy| An Anything But American Virus| Opposing Views| How AZT Changed History|

• Nearly doubled the life expectancy for persons with AIDS

• Can reduce maternal transmission of AIDS during pregnancy by 2/3

• Too toxic for cancer in 1964 but worked 20 years later with antiviral therapy

• March 1987 “The world of clinical research was turned upside down” (National
  Academy of Sciences) when the FDA approved AZT after phase one instead of the usual phase 3

• $10,000 annually-one of the most expensive drugs in history

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Intro | Chemistry | Sources | Affects History | History affects  | Poor Countries | Undesired Effects  | Substitutes | Conclusion

Quinine, in sum, is one the molecules that have had a tremendous impact on the history of mankind. Although its medicinal properties were known well before, it has been made popular thanks to the campaign of the Jesuits in the 17^th century. The understanding of its chemistry as well as periods of high demands have led to attempts towards its synthetic make up which has only been achieved in 2001. Because of its many side effects and the scarcity of its source, cheaper and better alternatives have been sought after. These substitutes, however, did not completely remove quinine from the list of the leading drugs for the treatment and prevention of the world number one killer disease. After the recent successful synthesis of this potent molecule, there is reason to believe that one day soon, the world may free itself from the malaria disease.

Bibliography: 

1.    Ball, Phillip. “History of science: Quinine steps back in time”. Nature: 2008. www.nature.com.
2. Barton, Patricia & Mills, James H. Drugs and empires: Essays in Modern Imperialism and Intoxication. Palgrave McMillan. New York: 2007.
3. Burreson, Jay & Le Couteur, Penny. Napoleon’s button: 17 molecules that changed history. Jeremy P. Tarcher/Penguin. New York: 2004.
4. Considine, Glenn D. Van Nostrand’s encyclopedia of chemistry. Wiley-Interscience. Hoboken, NJ: 2005.
5. Cotton, Simon. “The Mighty Quinine”. http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk. http://www.chm.bris.ac.uk/motm/quinine/quininev.htm
6. Dagani, Ron. Quinine. Chemical & Engineering News. Washington, DC: 2005. http://envoy.dickinson.edu:2048/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=857229151&sid=3&Fmt=2&clientId=4534&RQT=309&VName=PQD
7. Duran-Reynals. The fever bark tree. Double Day and Company. Garden City: 1946.
8. Frankel, S. Herbert. The economic impact on underdeveloped countries: Essay on international investment and social change. Harvard University Press. Cambridge: 1955.
9. Isaacman, Allen & Roberts, Richard. Cotton, Colonialism, and Social History in Sub-Saharan Africa. Heinemann. Portsmouth, NH: 1995.
10. Keen, Mary. The dark side of the vegetable world. The Spectator. London: 1999. http://envoy.dickinson.edu:2048/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com/pqdwep?did=42416027&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=4534&RQT=309&VName=PPQ
11.  Magill, Alan & Panosian Claire. Making Antimalarial Agents Available in the United States. The New England Journal of Medicine. Boston: 2005. http://envoy.dickinson.edu:2048/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=875776471&sid=8&Fmt=3&clientId=4534&RQT=309&VName=PQD
12. Mahar, Dulcy. Homes & Garden of the Northwest. The Orgonian. Portaland, Or: 2003. http://envoy.dickinson.edu:2048/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=489774871&sid=1&Fmt=3&clientId=4534&RQT=309&VName=PQD
13. Rinsky, Rober A. Public Health Reports: Historical Collection 1878-2005. Association of Schools of Public Health. Washington DC: 2005.
14. Werner, Louis. Quinine’s: Feverish tales and trails. Americas. Washington, DC: 2003. http://envoy.dickinson.edu:2048/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=419274271&sid=2&Fmt=4&clientId=4534&RQT=309&VName=PQD
15.  Williams, Stephen. The Fever Trail. African Business. London: 2002. http://envoy.dickinson.edu:2048/login?url=http://proquest.umi.com/pqdweb?did=105869691&sid=1&Fmt=4&clientId=4534&RQT=309&VName=PQD

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Intro | Chemistry | Sources | Affects History | History affects  | Poor Countries | Undesired Effects  | Substitutes | Conclusion

Over the past few decades, chloroquine-resistant strains of the malaria parasite have spread very rapidly. This has reduced the effectiveness of chloroquine and other quinine related drugs.

Drugs like fansidar, and mefloquine are often used as substitutes.

These drugs, however, are highly toxic with, sometimes, allarming side effects.

Therefore, quinine still remains one of the leading drugs for the treatment and prevention of malaria.

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Intro | Chemistry | Sources | Affects History | History affects  | Poor Countries | Undesired Effects  | Substitutes | Conclusion

Quinine may be harmful if wrongly used and/or depending on the tolerability of the patient.

• Certain patients may vomit after ingesting malaria tablets 

• If accidentally injected in nerves, it can paralyze

• It is extremely toxic in overdose

• In the U.S. it is classified as a Category X teratogen by the Food and Drugs Adminsitration: It can cause birth defects if taken by pregnant woman

• It can be itchy

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Intro | Chemistry | Sources | Affects History | History affects  | Poor Countries | Undesired Effects  | Substitutes | Conclusion

Breeding place for mosquitoes

• Malaria is number one killer in many developping countires

• Every year hundreds of millions suffer from malaria and 2 to 3 million of them die, mainly in Africa.

Adavantages of Quinine:

• Quinine still being used in many developping countries as treatment against malaria

• It is accessible and affordable, but not always reliable.

• In many countries they have a lot of fake pills.

Disadvantages:

• The quinine molecule has been instrumental in the exploitation of many developping countries.

• The bark of the cinchona tree has brought barely any economic benefit to the indigenous people of the Andes.

 “Outsiders benefited from the the quinine molecule, exploiting a unique resource of a less developped country for their own advsantage”.

Napoleon’s Buttons: p.348-349.

• Without quinine, most of today’s developping countries would not have been colonized and exploited for so long.
• Finally, despite the existence of quinine and other drugs, malaria still is rife in poor countries.
• There are conditions which facilitate the reproduction of the mosquitoes.
• With such favorable conditions for its development, the parasite develops resitant forms to antimalarial drugs.

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Intro | Chemistry | Sources | Affects History | History affects  | Poor Countries | Undesired Effects  | Substitutes | Conclusion

 The Jesuit Powder:

• Before 1655, each time a papal conclave was held in Rome a number of the cardinals would die from malaria.

• In 1633,  a number of the Jesuit order in Peru began using the Cinchona bark to treat and prevent malaria.

• In 1940 Father Bartolome Tafur took some of the bark with him to Rome and words of  its miraculous effects were spread out very quickly.

• In the 1955 papal conclave, thanks to the cinchonal bark, no cardinal died.

• The Cinchona bark became then known as the Jesuit’s powder, as the Jesuits started importing large amounts and selling it through Europe.

• It became very popular from that time on.

World War II:

• During World War II, there was high demand for quinine.

• Extensive research led to the discovery of a derivative of quinine: chloroquine.

• Both quinine and chloroquine have the quinoline structure.

                      Quinine                           

                                                                      Chloroquine

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